A year after the ASEAN-led coordinating Tripartite Core Group (TCG) was established to spearhead the humanitarian and recovery efforts in Myanmar, victims and survivors of Cyclone Nargis are still in crisis situation.
With more than US$300 million already given by foreign governments and international organizations in the past months after the cyclone, US$691 million is a new price tag for post-disaster restoration and recovery of the affected areas in Myanmar for the next three years. Will more financial aid be sustainable in the crisis situation such as in Myanmar after Cyclone Nargis?
Historically and globally, financial aid is tied with development programs. Amidst the criticisms and dismal results against its development targets and objectives, financial aid continues to grow exponentially in the developing world every year. And yet, the world's poor have never been more at risk of becoming hungrier, more marginalized and more prone to more environmental disasters than ever before. Sadly without financial aid though, they will ultimately be more vulnerable to all sorts of human and environmental problems.
The appeal for more financial aid, for Myanmar, includes humanitarian aid. It is not only about development cooperation, rather the financial aid aims to save and restore lives and alleviate extreme suffering brought about by the impacts of the powerful cyclone.
In Myanmar, the magnitude of destruction of the cyclone to the peoples' economic and social lives is unprecedented in the country's history. The ruling military junta has not confronted such kind of crisis situation.
Notably, the humanitarian response of the international and regional communities led by the ASEAN Secretariat and TCG has been admirable in spite of various challenges compromising the achievement of their humanitarian goals. Their post-disaster strategies have been focused on the people's basic needs such as shelter, food, livelihood, health and education. It looks like they have tremendous difficulties in meeting those basic needs. And now, they are asking for more financial aid to accelerate the recovery of people's livelihoods and address the basic needs of the victims and survivors of the cyclone.
For sure, the financial aid will help in the implementation of overall framework of post-disaster strategies. However, there may be a need to expand the focus of strategies to include the ecosystem approach which values biodiversity’s contribution to recovery efforts. There are two realities that call for attention which may persuade the expansion of focus in Myanmar for sustainability of recovery efforts – devastated natural resources base and unprepared and untested national capacity to confront such crisis situation.
Last year, I was in Bogale Township, one of the most affected areas in the delta region three months after the cyclone, to support the ASEAN Humanitarian Task Force in Myanmar. In remote villages, I saw the damage marked in people's lives and environment. There was a widespread degraded natural resources base which used to support income-generating activities.
There were also obvious uncertainties on the looks of the people and local officials on what to do. But they knew exactly what they needed and their urgencies.
The ecosystems of Irrawaddy delta region of Myanmar are primarily suited for farming and fishing. If the post-disaster strategies cover livelihood security for the people, then the restoration of ecosystems that have sustained the people's basic needs even before the cyclone hit must be
integrated in the recovery efforts. Failing to do so could mean endless calls for more financial aid.
The ecosystem approach entails integrated management of biodiversity such as land, water, and living resources that necessitates restoration to be able to be productive again and become assets of and beneficial to the people. In this way, local people could rely on what they have, rather than on what other people have.
The second expanded focus is about developing the national capacity of the country to address such crisis situation. There should be less foreign aid workers coming to Myanmar, more locals getting hired to do humanitarian work, and enhanced bureaucracy to address persisting problems after a year of the disaster. The locals and bureaucracy must have gained necessary skills and capacity to be able to attend to the recovery needs of their own people. The ownership of the post-disaster restoration and recovery of Myanmar belongs to its own people.
Furthermore, as part of one ASEAN community, Myanmar can count on its fellow members of a caring community to extend the necessary support for its recovery efforts.
In a short term, more financial aid can only do so much in Myanmar. What is critically needed is an expansion of focus to include ecosystem restoration and development of national capacity to handle crisis situations to facilitate and accelerate the recovery efforts in Myanmar in a sustained manner.
Ecosystem Adaptation to Climate Change: The ASEAN Experience
In the early part of the year 2009, severe weather news in various parts of the world shocked the unsuspecting inhabitants of the areas. In Australia, during the two epic five-setter tennis matches by Rafael Nadal of Spain towards his first Australian Open title, the country had a heat wave of above 40 degrees Celsius in the southwest of the country including the cities of Adelaide and Melbourne. About 28 deaths were reported to have been caused by the searing heat (Reuters, 2008). In Europe, a strong storm with 190 kilometers per hour (kph) wind speed battered northern Spain and southwest of France killing 15 people on January 24, 2008 (Fichot, 2008). In Southeast Asia, the city of Cagayan de Oro in southern Philippines experienced a wave of flash floods that started on January 3 and killed at least nine people (Inquirer Bureaus, 2009). Described as unusual, unprecedented, worst and gravest in such areas, the three incidents are symptomatic of climate change that grips our world today. The intensity and frequency of extreme weather occurrences are said to be the dire consequences of climate change. And there will be more, more severe, if climate change is not tackled.
How is Southeast Asia adapting to climate change? Are there regional responses to climate change?
This paper seeks to explore the extent and experiences on ecosystem adaptation to climate change in Southeast Asia.
What we know about climate change
Our understanding of climate change has now improved since it became a buzzword. We owe our enlightened knowledge to the numerous scientists and experts who are instrumental to shift the buzzword from theoretical to real global threat and challenge. The UN’s Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) which co-won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2007 was recognized for its scientific work on climate change.
The 2007 IPCC’s Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) presents a comprehensive view on climate change which is referred to as, “a change in the state of the climate that can be identified (e.g. using statistical tests) changes in the mean and/or the variability of its properties, and that persists for an extended period, typically decades or longer. It refers to any change in climate over time, whether due to natural variability or as a result of human activity” (IPCC, 2007).
The AR4 provides a “schematic framework of anthropogenic climate change drivers, impacts and responses” and their linkages centering on the relationship between earth and human systems (See Figure 1 below). Not only anthropogenic sources bring about climate change, natural disturbances such as wildfires and volcanic eruptions, in part, also result to a change in climate.
There is no doubt that the world is getting warmer and warmer. The AR4 indicates that since 1850, eleven of the twelve warmest years registered in the record of the global surface temperature were from 1995-2006. The increase in the average surface temperature from 1906 to 2005 is 0.74°C. This increase in temperature is caused by the emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG), particularly carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4). Human activities from the sectors of energy, transport and industry are said to be the main emitters of GHG.
Notable impacts of climate change
Whether we like it or not, the way we live our lives is being altered by climate change. Our choices are being shaped by it. The impacts of climate change are already in our midst. From the familiar things and gadgets we use to places we know, they are being influenced and determined by factors that reinforce, mitigate, and adapt climate change. For example, the home appliances and other products
Figure 1. A schematic framework
Source: Climate Change 2007: A Synthesis Report. (http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/syr/ar4_syr.pdf)
have been made compliant to become “environmentally-friendly” and phase out the “ozone-depleting gases” such as hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs).
Due to climate change, the global sea level has risen at an average rate of 1.8 mm per year since 1961 to 2003. Low-lying and coastal areas are at risk of constant flooding and erosion, and wetlands may be altered (Ouano, 2007).
On peatlands
Covering over 4 million km2 spread in 180 countries all over the world, “peatlands are important natural ecosystem with high value for biodiversity conservation, climate regulation and human welfare” (Parish et. al., 2007). Climate change impacts on peatlands through desertification and degradation. If not managed properly, peatlands contribute to climate change in a major way. Degradation of peatlands exhales carbon dioxide from peatland drainage and fires of “at least 3,000 million tonnes per annum or equivalent to more than 10% of the global fossil fuel emissions” (ibid, 2007).
On biodiversity
The Biodiversity Synthesis by the 2005 Millennium Assessment Reports (MAR) highlights the significance of biodiversity on various aspects of human life, from security, social relations to freedom of choices and actions. Biodiversity offers ecosystem services through its provisioning services (food, medicines), regulating services (filtering water and air, moderating weather), and cultural services (recreational spaces, tourism, heritage). The MAR notes that one of the main drivers of biodiversity loss and ecosystem services change is climate change. For the last 50 years, biological extinction is unprecedented and depletion of one-fourth of earth’s top soil, one-fifth of its agricultural land, and a third of its forests have occurred (Djoghlaf, 2008).
Interestingly, the MAR also mentions that one of human activities that exert pressure on biodiversity is agriculture.
On agriculture and food
Agricultural productivity, food availability and crop yields will be adversely affected by climate change. On Adaptation to climate change in agriculture, forestry and fisheries: Perspective, framework and priorities of the Interdepartmental Working Group on Climate Change of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the impacts of climate change are divided into two categories; the biophysical impacts which include, among others, changes in the quality and quantity of land, soil and water resources, rise in sea temperature, and the physiological effects in the quality and quantity of crops, livestock, pasture, and forests; and the socio-economic impacts which are decline in production and yields, fluctuations in the global market prices, and among other things.
Brought about by climate change, “increased intensity and frequency of storms, drought and flooding, altered hydrological cycles and precipitation variance have implications for future food availability” (FAO, 2007).
Ecosystem resilience
There is an inherent capacity of ecosystems to resist and adapt to climate change known as ecological resilience (Prato and Fagre, 2006). Our ecosystem has this inherent capacity which makes our habitat livable in spite of the harmful changes it undergoes and confronts. “Ecological resilience concentrates on the ability of a set of mutually reinforcing structures and processes to persist” and allows “the change required to move the ecosystem from being organized around one set of mutually reinforcing structures and processes to another” (Holling et. al., 2006).
Climate change places lots of pressures on the ecosystem’s capacity. “When this capacity is exceeded, the ecosystem can change in ways that may not be socially and ecologically acceptable” (Prato and Fagre, 2006). That is why there is a need to reduce the vulnerability of ecosystem and strengthen its ecological resilience through mitigation and adaptation approaches to climate change. Without any consequential action on climate change, the impacts are going to be severe in the coming years. Mitigation approaches are intended to reduce the ecosystems’ vulnerability and GHG in the biosphere while adaptation approaches are meant to enhance ecosystems’ ecological resilience to climate change.
Ecosystem adaptation
Ecosystem adaptation aims to deal with the impacts that are already present in the ecosystem, recover from the impacts and build the resilience of the people and ecosystem.
In the position paper by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) to the Fourteenth session of the Conference of the Parties (COP14) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), it states that “adaptation to climate change should now be a central element of climate change policy at local, national, regional and international level.” Furthermore, it “calls States to mainstream ecosystem-based adaptation as an integral element of overall climate change adaptation in poverty reduction strategies and development planning.” (For the purpose of this paper, ecosystem adaptation and ecosystem-based adaptation would be treated as the same)
The IUCN defines ecosystem-based adaptation as “a range of local and landscape scale strategies for managing ecosystems to increase resilience and maintain essential ecosystem services and reduce the vulnerability of the people, their livelihoods and nature in the face of climate change” (IUCN, 2008). Ecosystem-based adaptation calls for a collective action among stakeholders including the governments, communities, environmental groups, development organizations “to plan and empower local action that will increase environmental and community resilience to the changing climate” (ibid, 2008).
ASEAN experiences on adaptation
There are ten countries that comprise ASEAN as a regional bloc, namely, Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam. The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) is now a chartered regional organization which aims to integrate member-countries into one rule-based and dynamic community. The region is home to biodiversity hotspots which host about 20% of the known species in the world. As in any other regions, ASEAN is facing the grave risks and threats of climate change.
As a regional intergovernmental organization, ASEAN has instituted regional agreements, initiatives and strategies to combat environmental concerns such as transboundary haze through ASEAN Agreement of Transboundary Haze Pollution, peatland management through ASEAN Peatland Management Strategy, and conservation of protected areas through the ASEAN Declaration on Heritage Parks.
Outside the ASEAN organization, there are “regional” efforts of ecosystem adaptation. The Rice Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is a form of farmers’ field school that provides knowledge and understanding of ecological principles, monitoring crop cycles, destructive and friendly pests, and biodiversity. Started in Indonesia, the IPM is now benefitting the Vietnamese and Filipino farmers through increased crop production and reduction of pesticides inputs (Ooi, 2000). Another effort with “regional” scope is the Ecoregion conservation in Cambodia, Lao PDR and Vietnam. Sharing similar or interrelated ecological characteristics and processes, the three countries of ASEAN, under Ecoregion conservation, are “to develop long term conservation programs that ensure the persistence of healthy ecosystems and species by mainstreaming conservation with natural resource management” (Hodgdon, 2000). Another ecoregion project that includes Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines is the Ecoregion Conservation Plan in the Sulu-Sulawesi marine ecoregion which is part of the Coral Triangle, the richest source of marine biodiversity in the world.
Conclusion
Climate change is going to cause more extreme weather events worldwide. The continued warming of the earth’s surface temperature is changing or threatening to change the landscapes and seascapes, triggering biodiversity loss and decline in crop yields, agricultural productivity and food supply, and peoples’ lifestyles. While mitigation approaches to climate change are reducing the vulnerability of ecosystem by cutting emissions of GHG, adaption approaches are necessary to adjust to the anticipated impacts of climate change. Ecosystem adaptation is a useful strategy to help communities and ecosystem become more resilient to the climate change impacts. Adaptation strategies must be cost-effective, participatory and sustainable to be able to effectively address the present and anticipated impacts.
ASEAN has recognized the need to combat the impacts collectively as a region. As a regional response to the threats and challenges of climate change, it has initiated and instituted plan of actions on various environmental concerns that are shared by and common to some if not all ASEAN member-countries. Other efforts with “regional” coverage are contributing to the task of making communities and ecosystem adaptive to climate change.
Although these efforts and initiatives may not be specifically directed to tackle climate change, they are, nevertheless, directly addressing its impacts on communities and ecosystem. If that is so, they are ecosystem adaptation with which we can suitably confront the impacts of climate change, not just in ASEAN, but in our world. What we do in ASEAN will have an impact on our task to mitigate and adapt to climate change.
References:
Djoghlaf, A. (2008, April-June). Climate and Biodiversity: The twin planetary environmental challenges of
the 21st Century. ASEAN Biodiversity, 7, 10-17.
Fichot, N. (2009, January 25). Spain pick up pieces after deadly storm. Reuters AlertNet. Retrieved
February 3, 2009, from http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/LP686061.htm
Food and Agriculture Organization (2007). Adaptation to climate change in agriculture, forestry and
fisheries: Perspective, framework and priorities. Rome, Italy. Retrieved February 3, 2009, from ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/009/j9271e/j9271e.pdf
Hodgdon, B. (2000). Ecoregion Conservation in Cambodia, Lao PDR and Vietnam: Approach, Experiences
and Preliminary Outputs. In the The Ecosystem Approach under the CBD, from concept to action (eds. Smith, R. et. al.) Surrey, UK: RHIER
Holling, C., Peterson, G. and C. Allen (1998). Ecological Resilience, Biodiversity, and Scale. Ecosystems, 1,
6-18. Retrieved February 4, 2009, from http://www.geog.mcgill.ca/faculty/peterson/PDF-myfiles/BioDEcoFn.pdf
Inquirer Bureaus (2009, January 15). 9 dead in flash floods, storm surges. Philippines Daily Inquirer.
Retrieved February 3, 2009, from http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/inquirerheadlines/regions/view/20090115-183446/9-dead-in-flash-floods-storm-surges
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007). Climate Change 2007: A Synthesis Report. Retrieved
February 3, 2009, from http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/syr/ar4_syr.pdf
International Union for Conservation of Nature (2008). Adaptation to Climate Change. Retrieved
February 3, 2009, from http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/unfccc_cop14_adaptation_pp_19_nov_08_final.pdf
International Union for Conservation of Nature (2008). Ecosystem-based adaptation: An approach
http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/iucn_submission_on_ecosystem_based_adaptation_final_6_dec_2008.pdf
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005). Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: Biodiversity Synthesis.
World Resources Institute, Washington D.C. Retrieved February 3, 2009, from http://www.millenniumassessment.org/documents/document.354.aspx.pdf
Ooi, P. (2000). Rice IPM as application of the ecosystem system approach in Indonesia and elsewhere in
Asia. In the The Ecosystem Approach under the CBD, from concept to action (eds. Smith, R. et. al.) Surrey, UK: RHIER
Ouano, A. (2007, April-June). Climate Change and Initiatives. ASEAN Biodiversity, 6, 25-31.
Parish, F. Sirin, A., Charman, D. Joosten, H., Minayeva, T. and Silvius, M. (eds.) 2007. Assesment on Peatlands, Biodiversity and Climate Change: Executive Summary. Global Environment Centre, Kuala Lumpur and Wetlands International, Wageningen. Retrieved January 29, 2009, from http://www.peat-portal.net/index.cfm?&menuid=123&parentid=113.
Prato, T. and D. Fagre (2006). Coping with Climate Change. American Institute of Biological Sciences.
Retrieved January 29, 2009, from http://www.nrmsc.usgs.gov/files/norock/products/GCC/ActionBioscience_PratoFagre_06.pdf
How is Southeast Asia adapting to climate change? Are there regional responses to climate change?
This paper seeks to explore the extent and experiences on ecosystem adaptation to climate change in Southeast Asia.
What we know about climate change
Our understanding of climate change has now improved since it became a buzzword. We owe our enlightened knowledge to the numerous scientists and experts who are instrumental to shift the buzzword from theoretical to real global threat and challenge. The UN’s Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) which co-won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2007 was recognized for its scientific work on climate change.
The 2007 IPCC’s Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) presents a comprehensive view on climate change which is referred to as, “a change in the state of the climate that can be identified (e.g. using statistical tests) changes in the mean and/or the variability of its properties, and that persists for an extended period, typically decades or longer. It refers to any change in climate over time, whether due to natural variability or as a result of human activity” (IPCC, 2007).
The AR4 provides a “schematic framework of anthropogenic climate change drivers, impacts and responses” and their linkages centering on the relationship between earth and human systems (See Figure 1 below). Not only anthropogenic sources bring about climate change, natural disturbances such as wildfires and volcanic eruptions, in part, also result to a change in climate.
There is no doubt that the world is getting warmer and warmer. The AR4 indicates that since 1850, eleven of the twelve warmest years registered in the record of the global surface temperature were from 1995-2006. The increase in the average surface temperature from 1906 to 2005 is 0.74°C. This increase in temperature is caused by the emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG), particularly carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4). Human activities from the sectors of energy, transport and industry are said to be the main emitters of GHG.
Notable impacts of climate change
Whether we like it or not, the way we live our lives is being altered by climate change. Our choices are being shaped by it. The impacts of climate change are already in our midst. From the familiar things and gadgets we use to places we know, they are being influenced and determined by factors that reinforce, mitigate, and adapt climate change. For example, the home appliances and other products
Figure 1. A schematic framework
Source: Climate Change 2007: A Synthesis Report. (http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/syr/ar4_syr.pdf)
have been made compliant to become “environmentally-friendly” and phase out the “ozone-depleting gases” such as hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs).
Due to climate change, the global sea level has risen at an average rate of 1.8 mm per year since 1961 to 2003. Low-lying and coastal areas are at risk of constant flooding and erosion, and wetlands may be altered (Ouano, 2007).
On peatlands
Covering over 4 million km2 spread in 180 countries all over the world, “peatlands are important natural ecosystem with high value for biodiversity conservation, climate regulation and human welfare” (Parish et. al., 2007). Climate change impacts on peatlands through desertification and degradation. If not managed properly, peatlands contribute to climate change in a major way. Degradation of peatlands exhales carbon dioxide from peatland drainage and fires of “at least 3,000 million tonnes per annum or equivalent to more than 10% of the global fossil fuel emissions” (ibid, 2007).
On biodiversity
The Biodiversity Synthesis by the 2005 Millennium Assessment Reports (MAR) highlights the significance of biodiversity on various aspects of human life, from security, social relations to freedom of choices and actions. Biodiversity offers ecosystem services through its provisioning services (food, medicines), regulating services (filtering water and air, moderating weather), and cultural services (recreational spaces, tourism, heritage). The MAR notes that one of the main drivers of biodiversity loss and ecosystem services change is climate change. For the last 50 years, biological extinction is unprecedented and depletion of one-fourth of earth’s top soil, one-fifth of its agricultural land, and a third of its forests have occurred (Djoghlaf, 2008).
Interestingly, the MAR also mentions that one of human activities that exert pressure on biodiversity is agriculture.
On agriculture and food
Agricultural productivity, food availability and crop yields will be adversely affected by climate change. On Adaptation to climate change in agriculture, forestry and fisheries: Perspective, framework and priorities of the Interdepartmental Working Group on Climate Change of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the impacts of climate change are divided into two categories; the biophysical impacts which include, among others, changes in the quality and quantity of land, soil and water resources, rise in sea temperature, and the physiological effects in the quality and quantity of crops, livestock, pasture, and forests; and the socio-economic impacts which are decline in production and yields, fluctuations in the global market prices, and among other things.
Brought about by climate change, “increased intensity and frequency of storms, drought and flooding, altered hydrological cycles and precipitation variance have implications for future food availability” (FAO, 2007).
Ecosystem resilience
There is an inherent capacity of ecosystems to resist and adapt to climate change known as ecological resilience (Prato and Fagre, 2006). Our ecosystem has this inherent capacity which makes our habitat livable in spite of the harmful changes it undergoes and confronts. “Ecological resilience concentrates on the ability of a set of mutually reinforcing structures and processes to persist” and allows “the change required to move the ecosystem from being organized around one set of mutually reinforcing structures and processes to another” (Holling et. al., 2006).
Climate change places lots of pressures on the ecosystem’s capacity. “When this capacity is exceeded, the ecosystem can change in ways that may not be socially and ecologically acceptable” (Prato and Fagre, 2006). That is why there is a need to reduce the vulnerability of ecosystem and strengthen its ecological resilience through mitigation and adaptation approaches to climate change. Without any consequential action on climate change, the impacts are going to be severe in the coming years. Mitigation approaches are intended to reduce the ecosystems’ vulnerability and GHG in the biosphere while adaptation approaches are meant to enhance ecosystems’ ecological resilience to climate change.
Ecosystem adaptation
Ecosystem adaptation aims to deal with the impacts that are already present in the ecosystem, recover from the impacts and build the resilience of the people and ecosystem.
In the position paper by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) to the Fourteenth session of the Conference of the Parties (COP14) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), it states that “adaptation to climate change should now be a central element of climate change policy at local, national, regional and international level.” Furthermore, it “calls States to mainstream ecosystem-based adaptation as an integral element of overall climate change adaptation in poverty reduction strategies and development planning.” (For the purpose of this paper, ecosystem adaptation and ecosystem-based adaptation would be treated as the same)
The IUCN defines ecosystem-based adaptation as “a range of local and landscape scale strategies for managing ecosystems to increase resilience and maintain essential ecosystem services and reduce the vulnerability of the people, their livelihoods and nature in the face of climate change” (IUCN, 2008). Ecosystem-based adaptation calls for a collective action among stakeholders including the governments, communities, environmental groups, development organizations “to plan and empower local action that will increase environmental and community resilience to the changing climate” (ibid, 2008).
ASEAN experiences on adaptation
There are ten countries that comprise ASEAN as a regional bloc, namely, Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam. The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) is now a chartered regional organization which aims to integrate member-countries into one rule-based and dynamic community. The region is home to biodiversity hotspots which host about 20% of the known species in the world. As in any other regions, ASEAN is facing the grave risks and threats of climate change.
As a regional intergovernmental organization, ASEAN has instituted regional agreements, initiatives and strategies to combat environmental concerns such as transboundary haze through ASEAN Agreement of Transboundary Haze Pollution, peatland management through ASEAN Peatland Management Strategy, and conservation of protected areas through the ASEAN Declaration on Heritage Parks.
Outside the ASEAN organization, there are “regional” efforts of ecosystem adaptation. The Rice Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is a form of farmers’ field school that provides knowledge and understanding of ecological principles, monitoring crop cycles, destructive and friendly pests, and biodiversity. Started in Indonesia, the IPM is now benefitting the Vietnamese and Filipino farmers through increased crop production and reduction of pesticides inputs (Ooi, 2000). Another effort with “regional” scope is the Ecoregion conservation in Cambodia, Lao PDR and Vietnam. Sharing similar or interrelated ecological characteristics and processes, the three countries of ASEAN, under Ecoregion conservation, are “to develop long term conservation programs that ensure the persistence of healthy ecosystems and species by mainstreaming conservation with natural resource management” (Hodgdon, 2000). Another ecoregion project that includes Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines is the Ecoregion Conservation Plan in the Sulu-Sulawesi marine ecoregion which is part of the Coral Triangle, the richest source of marine biodiversity in the world.
Conclusion
Climate change is going to cause more extreme weather events worldwide. The continued warming of the earth’s surface temperature is changing or threatening to change the landscapes and seascapes, triggering biodiversity loss and decline in crop yields, agricultural productivity and food supply, and peoples’ lifestyles. While mitigation approaches to climate change are reducing the vulnerability of ecosystem by cutting emissions of GHG, adaption approaches are necessary to adjust to the anticipated impacts of climate change. Ecosystem adaptation is a useful strategy to help communities and ecosystem become more resilient to the climate change impacts. Adaptation strategies must be cost-effective, participatory and sustainable to be able to effectively address the present and anticipated impacts.
ASEAN has recognized the need to combat the impacts collectively as a region. As a regional response to the threats and challenges of climate change, it has initiated and instituted plan of actions on various environmental concerns that are shared by and common to some if not all ASEAN member-countries. Other efforts with “regional” coverage are contributing to the task of making communities and ecosystem adaptive to climate change.
Although these efforts and initiatives may not be specifically directed to tackle climate change, they are, nevertheless, directly addressing its impacts on communities and ecosystem. If that is so, they are ecosystem adaptation with which we can suitably confront the impacts of climate change, not just in ASEAN, but in our world. What we do in ASEAN will have an impact on our task to mitigate and adapt to climate change.
References:
Djoghlaf, A. (2008, April-June). Climate and Biodiversity: The twin planetary environmental challenges of
the 21st Century. ASEAN Biodiversity, 7, 10-17.
Fichot, N. (2009, January 25). Spain pick up pieces after deadly storm. Reuters AlertNet. Retrieved
February 3, 2009, from http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/LP686061.htm
Food and Agriculture Organization (2007). Adaptation to climate change in agriculture, forestry and
fisheries: Perspective, framework and priorities. Rome, Italy. Retrieved February 3, 2009, from ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/009/j9271e/j9271e.pdf
Hodgdon, B. (2000). Ecoregion Conservation in Cambodia, Lao PDR and Vietnam: Approach, Experiences
and Preliminary Outputs. In the The Ecosystem Approach under the CBD, from concept to action (eds. Smith, R. et. al.) Surrey, UK: RHIER
Holling, C., Peterson, G. and C. Allen (1998). Ecological Resilience, Biodiversity, and Scale. Ecosystems, 1,
6-18. Retrieved February 4, 2009, from http://www.geog.mcgill.ca/faculty/peterson/PDF-myfiles/BioDEcoFn.pdf
Inquirer Bureaus (2009, January 15). 9 dead in flash floods, storm surges. Philippines Daily Inquirer.
Retrieved February 3, 2009, from http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/inquirerheadlines/regions/view/20090115-183446/9-dead-in-flash-floods-storm-surges
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007). Climate Change 2007: A Synthesis Report. Retrieved
February 3, 2009, from http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/syr/ar4_syr.pdf
International Union for Conservation of Nature (2008). Adaptation to Climate Change. Retrieved
February 3, 2009, from http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/unfccc_cop14_adaptation_pp_19_nov_08_final.pdf
International Union for Conservation of Nature (2008). Ecosystem-based adaptation: An approach
http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/iucn_submission_on_ecosystem_based_adaptation_final_6_dec_2008.pdf
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005). Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: Biodiversity Synthesis.
World Resources Institute, Washington D.C. Retrieved February 3, 2009, from http://www.millenniumassessment.org/documents/document.354.aspx.pdf
Ooi, P. (2000). Rice IPM as application of the ecosystem system approach in Indonesia and elsewhere in
Asia. In the The Ecosystem Approach under the CBD, from concept to action (eds. Smith, R. et. al.) Surrey, UK: RHIER
Ouano, A. (2007, April-June). Climate Change and Initiatives. ASEAN Biodiversity, 6, 25-31.
Parish, F. Sirin, A., Charman, D. Joosten, H., Minayeva, T. and Silvius, M. (eds.) 2007. Assesment on Peatlands, Biodiversity and Climate Change: Executive Summary. Global Environment Centre, Kuala Lumpur and Wetlands International, Wageningen. Retrieved January 29, 2009, from http://www.peat-portal.net/index.cfm?&menuid=123&parentid=113.
Prato, T. and D. Fagre (2006). Coping with Climate Change. American Institute of Biological Sciences.
Retrieved January 29, 2009, from http://www.nrmsc.usgs.gov/files/norock/products/GCC/ActionBioscience_PratoFagre_06.pdf
Urban Biodiversity: Improving Quality of Urban Life
Today, more than half of the world’s population live in urban areas which keep on growing at an unprecedented rate. By 2030, about 2 billion more people will become new city dwellers, mostly from rural areas in search of a better life, making them part of the 60% of the total population living in urban areas (The Nature Conservancy, 2008). These sprawling urban areas with swelling population exert tremendous pressure on and great potential for destruction of the environment. Resources are heavily concentrated on the urban areas causing major challenges such as waste disposal, noise, air and water pollution, soil erosion, deforestation, etc. Consequently, biodiversity in urban areas is threatened.
The 1992 United Nations’ Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) adopted and ratified by 188 member-states has laid down three objectives “aimed at the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources” (Curitiba Declaration on Cities and Biodiversity, 2007). Because of the wide acceptance of CBD and its subsequent declarations, the global community has recognized the significance of biodiversity. In 2002, the 188 parties of CBD agreed to have the 2010 Biodiversity Target which intends to primarily reduce the biodiversity loss in the planet, including in urban areas.
It is documented that cities and their suburbs host places and spots with high and distinctive biodiversity. They have become centers and hubs of evolution, adaptation, importation and immigration of various species (The Erfurt Declaration-Urbio, 2008). That is why it is important to promote and adopt nature conservation in urban areas.
Nature conservation is a “focused activity that addresses those species which are under some sort of threat or decline” (Kendle and Forbes, 1997, p.xi). It includes planning and management of that focused activity on natural, peripheral or semi-natural habitats which are hosts to this rich biodiversity.
Benefits of Nature Conservation
There are a number of benefits of nature conservation in urban setting. First, nature conservation generally improves the quality of life for urban residents. Second, it enlivens ecosystem services such as moderating weather, stabilizing the climate, providing shades from the heat of the sun, filtering water and air, facilitating pollination of plants, providing habitat for various species, etc. Third, it enriches human health conditions. Fourth, it provides recreational spaces. Fifth, it fulfills our ethical responsibility for stewardship of nature. Sixth, it preserves the cultural values and meanings associated with nature. Seventh, the “greening” of or planting on open spaces contributes to the aesthetics and economics of urban areas.
Examples of Nature Conservation in the Cities
With the benefits of nature conservation in mind, some communities in the cities have implemented nature conservation activities. One is a community in Kampung Bidara Cina in Jakarta, Indonesia. Initiated by a government agency with the support of local council, the Greening Program is able to give a face-lift to immediate environment and, at the same time, generate additional income to the residents of Bidara Cina. The program reaped publicity and award for being innovative as community-led and community-based program in partnership with the local government (Darrunduno, 1998).
Another example is a community-based environmental management project in Keht Bankok Noi, Bangkok. With the initiative of Thailand Environment Institute (TEI) and funding from Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA), the urban greening project is able to organize urban dwellers of Bankok Noi to plan, implement and maintain urban greening project in their area. Workshops with community members and local officials were conducted to find suitable site for the project. The project showcases a successful partnership between the community and local officials in upgrading the environment and harnessing participation from the urban dwellers (Fraser, 2002).
Lessons Learned from the Examples
From the examples cited, there are several lessons that can be gleaned. One is that urban dwellers should be seen as partners to nature conservation in the urban areas, rather than seeing them as polluters and spoilers of the environment. Community organizing and mobilizing is essential to foster participation from the urban dwellers. Another lesson is the showcasing of myriad of opportunities that lie in urban areas that are usually taken for granted. Public and private lands owned by cooperative community members that sit idly can be converted to urban greening projects. One more lesson is that involvement of local officials in the project should be sought and cultivated to ensure government’s support.
Role of National and Local Governments
As parties to CBD and other pertinent declarations related to urban biodiversity, state’s governments are committed to follow through the goals and targets of CBD and other declarations. Although there are initiatives such as Mega-Cities Project by United Nations Development Program (UNDP) and Local Action for Biodiversity (LAB) done by national and local governments in defining and appropriating these commitments to their respective jurisdiction, the threats to urban biodiversity remain daunting. There exists a need for coordinated and concerted efforts to halt biodiversity loss in urban areas through urban greening and nature conservation projects. Sharing of experiences and expertise through conferences, networks and exposure trips to sites demonstrating best practices on urban nature conservation must be instituted to build and maintain partnerships among governments, environmental groups and communities.
Since urbanization is on accelerated pace, developmental urban planning to cope up with and anticipate the expansion of urban areas in terms of population and size must be part of governance agenda of national and local councils.
References:
Darrunduno (1998). Urban Greening in Bidara Cina, Jakarta, Indonesia. The Mega-Cities Project
Publication.
Faser, E. (2002). Urban Ecology in Bangkok, Thailand: Community Participation, Urban Agriculture and
Forestry. Environments, 30 (1), 38-49. Retrieved January 21, 2009, from http://homepages.see.leeds.ac.uk/~earedgf/Personal/Publications_files/Bangkok.pdf
Kendle, T. and Forbes, S (1997). Urban Nature Conservation. London: E & FN SPON.
The Nature Conservancy (2008, June 17). Global Impact Of Urbanization Threatening World's
Biodiversity And Natural Resources. ScienceDaily. Retrieved January 21, 2009, from http://www.sciencedaily.com¬ /releases/2008/06/080610
The 1992 United Nations’ Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) adopted and ratified by 188 member-states has laid down three objectives “aimed at the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources” (Curitiba Declaration on Cities and Biodiversity, 2007). Because of the wide acceptance of CBD and its subsequent declarations, the global community has recognized the significance of biodiversity. In 2002, the 188 parties of CBD agreed to have the 2010 Biodiversity Target which intends to primarily reduce the biodiversity loss in the planet, including in urban areas.
It is documented that cities and their suburbs host places and spots with high and distinctive biodiversity. They have become centers and hubs of evolution, adaptation, importation and immigration of various species (The Erfurt Declaration-Urbio, 2008). That is why it is important to promote and adopt nature conservation in urban areas.
Nature conservation is a “focused activity that addresses those species which are under some sort of threat or decline” (Kendle and Forbes, 1997, p.xi). It includes planning and management of that focused activity on natural, peripheral or semi-natural habitats which are hosts to this rich biodiversity.
Benefits of Nature Conservation
There are a number of benefits of nature conservation in urban setting. First, nature conservation generally improves the quality of life for urban residents. Second, it enlivens ecosystem services such as moderating weather, stabilizing the climate, providing shades from the heat of the sun, filtering water and air, facilitating pollination of plants, providing habitat for various species, etc. Third, it enriches human health conditions. Fourth, it provides recreational spaces. Fifth, it fulfills our ethical responsibility for stewardship of nature. Sixth, it preserves the cultural values and meanings associated with nature. Seventh, the “greening” of or planting on open spaces contributes to the aesthetics and economics of urban areas.
Examples of Nature Conservation in the Cities
With the benefits of nature conservation in mind, some communities in the cities have implemented nature conservation activities. One is a community in Kampung Bidara Cina in Jakarta, Indonesia. Initiated by a government agency with the support of local council, the Greening Program is able to give a face-lift to immediate environment and, at the same time, generate additional income to the residents of Bidara Cina. The program reaped publicity and award for being innovative as community-led and community-based program in partnership with the local government (Darrunduno, 1998).
Another example is a community-based environmental management project in Keht Bankok Noi, Bangkok. With the initiative of Thailand Environment Institute (TEI) and funding from Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA), the urban greening project is able to organize urban dwellers of Bankok Noi to plan, implement and maintain urban greening project in their area. Workshops with community members and local officials were conducted to find suitable site for the project. The project showcases a successful partnership between the community and local officials in upgrading the environment and harnessing participation from the urban dwellers (Fraser, 2002).
Lessons Learned from the Examples
From the examples cited, there are several lessons that can be gleaned. One is that urban dwellers should be seen as partners to nature conservation in the urban areas, rather than seeing them as polluters and spoilers of the environment. Community organizing and mobilizing is essential to foster participation from the urban dwellers. Another lesson is the showcasing of myriad of opportunities that lie in urban areas that are usually taken for granted. Public and private lands owned by cooperative community members that sit idly can be converted to urban greening projects. One more lesson is that involvement of local officials in the project should be sought and cultivated to ensure government’s support.
Role of National and Local Governments
As parties to CBD and other pertinent declarations related to urban biodiversity, state’s governments are committed to follow through the goals and targets of CBD and other declarations. Although there are initiatives such as Mega-Cities Project by United Nations Development Program (UNDP) and Local Action for Biodiversity (LAB) done by national and local governments in defining and appropriating these commitments to their respective jurisdiction, the threats to urban biodiversity remain daunting. There exists a need for coordinated and concerted efforts to halt biodiversity loss in urban areas through urban greening and nature conservation projects. Sharing of experiences and expertise through conferences, networks and exposure trips to sites demonstrating best practices on urban nature conservation must be instituted to build and maintain partnerships among governments, environmental groups and communities.
Since urbanization is on accelerated pace, developmental urban planning to cope up with and anticipate the expansion of urban areas in terms of population and size must be part of governance agenda of national and local councils.
References:
Darrunduno (1998). Urban Greening in Bidara Cina, Jakarta, Indonesia. The Mega-Cities Project
Publication.
Faser, E. (2002). Urban Ecology in Bangkok, Thailand: Community Participation, Urban Agriculture and
Forestry. Environments, 30 (1), 38-49. Retrieved January 21, 2009, from http://homepages.see.leeds.ac.uk/~earedgf/Personal/Publications_files/Bangkok.pdf
Kendle, T. and Forbes, S (1997). Urban Nature Conservation. London: E & FN SPON.
The Nature Conservancy (2008, June 17). Global Impact Of Urbanization Threatening World's
Biodiversity And Natural Resources. ScienceDaily. Retrieved January 21, 2009, from http://www.sciencedaily.com¬ /releases/2008/06/080610
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